Conclusions and Lessons Learned
Updated - Thursday 20 November 2003
"Water Supplies Managed by Rural Communities"
Country reports and case studies from Cameroon, Colombia, Guatemala, Kenya, Nepal and Pakistan
The country reports and case studies described by the six country teams give a very rich overview of practices and experiences related to community management in the water supply and sanitation sector. We gain some insights into the strengths and weaknesses of community management practice at present. At the same time the document's comprehensive approach highlights some general trends and practices out of which emerge several conclusions. What are the lessons learned?
In all countries efforts are being made to involve communities in the construction, operation and maintenance of their drinking water supply facilities. However, this involvement is usually limited to operation and maintenance, mainly to reduce costs and increase long-term functioning. Some water supply agencies still limit community participation to a voluntary contribution in material and labour.
Due to high costs and the incapacity of national governments to address technical problems, the responsibility for operation and maintenance of water supply schemes is moving from governmental and agency level to municipalities and communities. In a number of countries this development runs parallel to the governmental decentralization process, which gives local authorities more responsibilities.
Many communities still do not consider drinking water facilities as belonging to them, due to their dependence on external agencies for big repairs and lack of training.
The different cases show that communities that are involved from the beginning of the project, not just in the implementation but also in planning and decision making, have a stronger feeling of ownership of the constructed facilities, and are therefore more willing to take up management responsibilities. The cases from Pakistan and Nepal show that it is even more important that water supply facilities be constructed only when there is a demand from the village itself.
In several projects analyzed, the establishment of an elected community committee worked out well. In a number of cases, however, difficulties were encountered because of a gap between the elected persons and the community, or because committee responsibilities were overshadowed by political interests.
Very few agencies promote a balanced division of physical work, decisions, functions and training between men and women, although all agree that women should be involved, as water is primarily a women's issue. Women's involvement varies from almost none in most cases to an active participation in financial management and other responsibilities. However, the presence of women in water committees or other management structures is no guarantee that a gender balance in influencing and making decisions will be achieved.
The protection of catchment areas and the preservation of water quantity and quality are increasing problems, and recognized as such by a number of agencies and communities. Activities in this respect are usually limited to source protection, the installation of sanitary facilities, and at times, water treatment.
The performance of community-managed schemes is not being monitored systematically, and existing monitoring is usually done by planning or implementing agencies, and not by the communities themselves.
Training which is given to communities is often limited to technical capacity building for operation and maintenance. In only a few cases does capacity building on other managerial aspects such as bookkeeping, water quality control, reporting, communication and administration.
Some highlights from the country reports
Each team prepared a country report which contains very interesting data on the condition of rural water supply facilities, and the role of communities in keeping these systems functioning. Each report gives an overview of the main actors in the drinking water supply and sanitation sector, and the legal framework in which they are operating. The teams investigated to what extent the various water agencies consider communities as managers of their own water supply systems. Using staff interviews and review documents, they assessed how these agencies involve the communities in their work, and how they address them as the future managers. They also found out if data are available on the performance of existing community-managed water supply systems, and did an indepth case study in one community that has been involved in water supply management.
The reports show that the involvement of communities in rural water supply systems is an accepted national policy in most countries. However, the type of involvement and the implementation of community management principles vary tremendously. Each agency has developed its own policies and procedures. In some cases communities become involved only after facilities have been constructed, and their involvement is often limited to operation and maintenance. Others involve communities in earlier stages of the project, such as during planning or construction of the water supply facilities. Ways of community participation vary from voluntary labour inputs to involving community members in decision making throughout the project. In general, in none of the countries is it normal practice for communities to be treated as the real future managers of their own water supply system. Too often, they still cannot make their own choices from a range of options, with clear insights on all advantages and disadvantages of the different alternatives. Also in many cases, community members are not sufficiently trained to carry out all needed management tasks.
In Cameroon, after independence the new government immediately started with a programme to supply potable water to the urban and rural areas of the country. Overall, however, due to poor planning and management and lack of involvement of the local population, these projects have not been very effective. Recognizing the importance of community involvement for ensuring sustainable operation and maintenance, the Cameroon government has come up with a number of guidelines to incorporate community involvement in rural water supply projects. A case study describing the historical development of a water supply system for the village of Bomono-Gare highlights the role of the community during planning and construction, and shows the importance of having a water committee that really represents the community.
In Colombia, a new national law lays the responsibility for the construction and management of rural water systems at municipal level. Elected water committees are now compulsory and have a legal status. Although there are differences in approach of governmental and non-governmental agencies, they both see the administration of water supply systems, which includes operation and maintenance, as a community responsibility. Other activities, such as the choice of technology, planning, design, construction, management of the catchment area, monitoring and control of the water quality, community mobilization and training are considered by the government agencies as their exclusive responsibility. NGOs see these more as a shared responsibility, which gives the communities the power of knowledge and helps them to control and sustain the local systems on their own. Where community involvement is prevalent, women are especially involved in financial management. Topics that have been identified as important for further development are water source protection, increased credibility of local management organizations, capacity building, supply of materials, coordination, credit and support services, and gender.
In Guatemala, the Ministry of Public Health and Social Assistance is one of the most significant agencies in the water sector, representing almost two-thirds of the total rural water investment in the country. Furthermore, over 200 national and international NGOs are implementing rural water supply projects. But human resources in these institutions are very few in number, and almost completely focused on the realization of construction works. Capacity building is very limited. There are no laws pertaining to community management of water supply systems in Guatemala. Although all agencies subscribe in principle to community management policies such as the one drawn up by the National Plan for Water Supply, in reality this is often reduced to contributions of labour and local materials. Training for management focuses on operation and bookkeeping being given to men, while women may receive hygiene education. The problems obstructing effective community management of water supply systems include a shortage of water, legal problems with source ownership, lack of skills training, limited financial resources and limited institutional capacity.
In Kenya, governmental agencies and external support agencies implement a large number of water supply programmes with community involvement, although it is still usually the agencies that decide who takes what responsibility. Communities normally have their own traditional management structures, which are almost never utilized by the projects. When communities have been adequately involved during the implementation phase, including the choice of appropriate technology, they are able to organize the operation and maintenance of the systems. But they often lack adequate information on project requirements in terms of financial arrangements, spare parts, and the need for routine preventive maintenance. Nevertheless, a number of projects are known where communities are managing their water systems adequately.
In Nepal, the Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning has the overall responsibility for the water supply sector, but a number of international and local NGOs are also active in the sector. Most of them understand the importance of operation and maintenance for long-term sustainability, and therefore ask communities to participate in raising a maintenance fund and a water tariff. However, since communities still need to call on outside support for major repairs that are beyond their means, they tend to feel the scheme is still owned by the agency. This is the central problem with rural water supplies in Nepal.
In Pakistan, rural water supply schemes have usually been planned, constructed and maintained by the government. However, due to such problems as the lack of interdepartmental coordination, the high number of breakdowns, poor cost recovery, and the improper use of schemes by communities, the government approach is gradually changing towards more community involvement, especially in operation and maintenance. Another problem identified in currently implemented projects of community-based water supplies is the lack of gender balance. There is also the minimal level of community involvement due to the gap between elected representatives and the rest of the community. Furthermore, the unwillingness of communities to pay, owing to their perception that this is the responsibility of the state, encourages only a poor sense of responsibility and ownership. The case study on local water management in Madinatul Karim Village reveals a lack of community interest in the maintenance and management for another reason: the scheme does not provide water of a better quality than the people already have access to, close to their homes.
Assessment of the case studies
As part of the country report, each country team carried out a case study on one example where a community is involved in the management of their water supply facility. The cases give another insight into some of the strengths, problems and other experiences of community-managed water supply schemes.
Small community-managed rural water supply systems, while not yet working as well as is hoped for, seem to be a workable solution to get more reliable water services, as many of these systems do at least give water to a substantial part of the rural population. The case studies show, however, that the supply does not always cover the complete community, and that administrative and managerial aspects of the work give more problems than the management of technical repairs.
Technology
In all villages, non-traditional water supply facilities have been constructed, with help from the government or external agencies. Five of the six cases are villages supplied with water through pipes by pumping (Cameroon) or by gravity. In one case (Nepal) the village has both handpumps and a piped system. One village (Colombia) also has a treatment plant (slow sand filter). All systems are operational, but they suffer from various operation and maintenance problems such as leaking pipes and taps, and inadequate storage tanks. In the case of Cameroon, the system does not supply water throughout the year, while in Kenya and Pakistan only a part of the community receives water. In Kenya this is due to an inadequate distribution system, while in Pakistan most of the 90 village households did not perceive any benefits from the water supply system to be installed, and decided not to participate in the project.
Community involvement
The involvement of the community during the planning, construction, and operation, maintenance and management of the water supply facilities varies in the different case studies. In the case of Kenya, the community was involved only after construction was finalized, at which point it received full responsibility for its management. The community from the Cameroon case was involved earlier during construction, when its members were asked to contribute with labour, cash and materials. In Pakistan the community was selected by the government and involved from the moment the project was identified. In Nepal, the project was requested for and initiated by the community itself, and their motivation and involvement was very strong throughout the construction, they themselves being responsible for all major decisions taken during the process.
Management
The communities in all case studies have been managing their water supply facilities for one to eight years. All villages also have traditional sources, but their management is not included in the management structure of the new system. In the villages in Cameroon and Pakistan a traditional structure of communal management of community resources exists, which includes the management of the drinking water supply facilities. All installed water supply facilities are managed by elected committees, which in general seem to function well. In Kenya the members of the committee do not seem to have a sufficiently broad view of the role of the water committee, and they use it primarily to earn some money through the sitting allowance they receive for attending meetings. The Kenyan project was initially not based on the concept of community management. This now hinders the development of a genuine feeling of ownership among community members. In two cases (Colombia and Guatemala), the water committees have grown into basic services organizations: a community enterprise for water supply, sewerage, solid waste collection and postal service in Colombia, and a grassroots organisation for education, water, women's development and health in Guatemala. In Nepal, the community is in complete control of the water supply facility, including doing all the operation and maintenance, and keeping all the records. Only monitoring is done by the agency.
Human Capacities
In most cases, it appears that managerial capacities and the managerial infrastructure in local communities is not strengthened. Sometimes, local management structures are even ignored, as was the case in Kenya. Accountability to the users for the performance of the system and for financial management, if present at all, is quite limited. When the committee is not representing the community in a satisfying way, abolishing the existing committee and electing a new one is a regular procedure. Training, if given, is often limited to technical training on operation and maintenance and bookkeeping, and usually only for male community members. Follow-up training or the assurance of continuously addressing training needs (staff turnover) is not taken care of in any of the communities investigated. Only in the Nepal village do people at community level not perceive any need for additional training.
Gender
Mixed committees were present in the cases in Colombia, Kenya, Nepal and Cameroon. However, the influence of women in decision making is not guaranteed by their presence. In some cases, it is not clear how many women participate in committees at community level, leave alone their role and influence. In the cases in Kenya and Colombia, paid jobs are held by men, while women's work in caretaking, fee collection and replacing the operator is voluntary. In the Colombian case, female committee members were not trained, while males were. In many cases it is felt that gender sensitivity and balance can and should be improved in the drinking water supply and sanitation sector.
Finances
In five of the six cases water tariffs have been set and people pay for water, which is registered through simple bookkeeping. A wide range of tariff systems exists. In Nepal a group of households share a fixed amount per water point, the exact amount for each household depending on the size of the group. In Cameroon, each adult in a user family pays a fixed amount, whereby females pay 60% of what males pay, and households which launder or have other special water uses pay extra. In Guatemala, each household pays a flat amount per month or year for daily operation and maintenance costs, while fund raising is organized for large expenditures. In Kenya, households pay a fixed tariff for house connections, which is four times that for standpost use. In the Columbian case each household pays according to consumption through metered house connections. The Kenyan water committee is the only one to have a bank account. In general the collected money is used for day-to-day operation and maintenance costs; in general there is no long-term planning. Action against defaulting is not always taken, including in cases where those not paying continue to get regular service.
Environment
Some work is being done, especially fencing off the source and tree planting. Water quality preservation, excreta disposal and wastewater disposal and drainage are not systematically addressed. In many of the cases the need for environmental protection and water source management are mentioned.
Final remarks
Communities are willing to undertake management of water supply systems if they perceive the improvements as desirable and belonging to them. An important condition is that support given to communities be similar. A situation where one community receives more support from the government or external support agency than other communities in similar conditions causes apathy. Furthermore, communication, information and routine involvement of the communities in decision making are crucial if community management is to be effective.
The successful and sustainable management of water supply schemes inevitably depends upon the magnitude, value and distribution of the social and economic benefits that the users gain from the scheme. Proper community organization holds a large part of the solution to these problems. Other areas for further development include better training for project staff and communities, proper involvement of men and women in all project phases, sectoral evaluations, and the development of a sense of ownership among communities.
The development of a true sense of ownership by the community proves again and again to be vital for the successful functioning of a water supply facility. The main reasons why a sense of ownership may be missing are the lack of genuine participation by the community in planning and decision making; the lack of clarity about what financial and technical contributions would be required from the community; and the failure to develop the skills and resources at community and local level needed to manage the water supply system.
During the workshop where the teams presented their country reports, it was found that community management:
- Goes beyond community participation, and equips communities to take charge of their own water supply improvements.
- Involves a long-term and changing partnership between communities and supporting agencies. It strengthens the capacity of each partner and enables their combined resources to be used more effectively.
- Can mean more widespread implementation of sustainable water supply systems;
- Means a new role for support agencies as facilitators rather than providers, demanding new skills and offering greater opportunities.
- Means that agencies have to adapt their pace of working to that of the community.
- Means that agencies have to make an effort to really understand communities, their vision, their logic, their ways of learning; their ways of decision making, etc..
- Brings benefits which can extend beyond water into other development activities;
- Extends its scope beyond rural water supplies to peri-urban supply.
- Can be monitored and evaluated using slightly adjusted conventional progress indicators, because capacity building is a major component.
Both the study and the workshop results show that while progress has been made in the community management of water supply systems, there is considerable scope and need for further development. It is clear that understanding about the dynamics of community management is incomplete, and many communities are unable to benefit fully from their water supply systems. Problems include: insufficient capacity building; only partial coverage of communities; lack of effective and equitable financing systems; absence of suitable management tools; environmental degradation of watersheds; and not having a proper gender balance in planning for, contributions to and control over the established water service.
As follow-up to the workshop and the literature review, the project 'Participatory field research and the development of strategies, methods and tools' is being carried out by the six country teams and IRC. The project comprises research in different communities that already have functioning and self-managed water supply systems of various types. A number of typical problems in community-managed water supply have been assessed and are at present being addressed in a participatory way, involving the community, local agencies, and IRC. This will result in an increased understanding of how different types of communities can effectively manage different types of rural water supplies. It should also help the participating organizations to offer better support to communities in establishing and carrying out their management responsibilities.
